MBA Research Paper Guidelines
Purpose of the Guide
This Research Guide has been adopted by the Business Administration Department and Master of Business Administration Program of the Saint Francis University School of Business. Graduate and undergraduate students of Dr. Dennis P. McIlnay should observe the standards in the Research Guide.
Attribution: The First Canon
The most fundamental canon of research writing is called attribution. The canon of attribution requires that the information in a research paper be based on sources in the literature and the sources be cited in a certain style.
Research papers without attribution violate the most important rule of scholarship because they plagiarize; that is, the papers fail to cite the sources of the information they use. All statements or contentions in a research paper must be supported by evidence. Such evidence includes quotations by authors in books or articles, statistics, or other forms of authoritative information such as financial statements, accreditation studies, reports, lectures, or interviews. Unsubstantiated statements; i.e., those that are not supported by authoritative information, should not appear in a research paper (except in the Opinion section at the end of the paper).
The research paper must rely on works in the classic literature on management or organizations rather than works in the popular literature. Examples of works in the popular literature are books such as How to Make a Million in Real Estate or McIlnay’s Secrets of Bass Fishing.
Sources have two types: primary and secondary. A primary source is a work by the original author, theorist, or practitioner. Primary sources are also called original sources. A secondary source is a work by a person other than an original author, theorist, or practitioner. For example, the Father of American Management, Frederick Winslow Taylor, wrote a book called The Principles of Scientific Management (1911). Taylor’s book is a primary source (in fact, the primary source) because Taylor invented scientific management and was the first person to write about it.
Primary sources are required in research papers instead of secondary sources because primary sources more accurately reflect the content, significance, and implications of the information in the works. Some secondary works, especially those by authors years apart from the time of the original author, may be inaccurate or distorted. Therefore, if you write a research paper about Scientific Management, you must use Taylor’s book. You may also use secondary works on scientific management such as someone else’s book on scientific management, but you must rely on the primary source (or sources).
When judging a paper’s attribution, I ask several questions:
• Are sources used in the paper?
• Does the paper rely on the primary source or sources?
• Is the style of the citations and Bibliography entries correct?
Research papers follow established styles for citations and bibliography entries. There are some 350 styles for research writing, as many professions or disciplines have developed their own styles. For example, the American Psychological Association has a style called APA, while the American Sociological Association has a style called ASA.
The Saint Francis School of Business uses a research style called Chicago, which is based on a set of attribution standards developed at the University of Chicago and explained in a book called The Chicago Manual of Style.
The style called Chicago uses a method for “footnotes” that may be new to you, but you will find the Chicago method easier to use than other research styles. Chicago “footnotes” are placed in the text, not at the bottom of the pages (“footnotes”) or at the end of the paper (“endnotes”). That’s why citations in Chicago are called in-text citations. Chicago citations include three elements: author’s last name, year of the work, and page number preceded and followed by parentheses; for example: (McIlnay, 2007, p. 24).
Research papers must cite the sources of two kinds of information:
• All material directly quoted, whether a word, a phrase, a sentence, or a paragraph
• All material paraphrased (that is, put into your own words).
Many people believe (incorrectly) that if the information in a work is paraphrased, the source of the information does not have to be cited. That belief is wrong.
Examples of Chicago citations for direct quotations are:
• “Management is important” (Smith, 1987, p. 15).
• “Management is important,” writes Smith (1987, p. 15).
• Smith (1987, p. 15) says that “management is important.”
An example of a Chicago citation for paraphrased information is:
According to Smith (1987, p. 15), management is essential in organizations.
Chicago Citations and Bibliography Entries
The following examples illustrate Chicago citations and bibliography entries for different kinds of works.
One-Author Book
• Citation: (Anderson, 2001, p. 25) or for a range of pages (Anderson, 2001, pp. 45-47)
• Bibliography Entry: Smith, John A. Management. New York: Harper and Row, 2001.
Two-Author Book
• Citation: (Anderson and Smith, 1998, p. 15) or (Anderson and Smith, 1989, pp. 26-29)
• Bibliography Entry: Smith, John A. and Jane A. Jones. Management. New York: Harper and Row, 1989.
One-Author Magazine, Newspaper, or Journal Article
• Citation: (Jones, 1990, p. 11) or (Jones, 1990, pp. 9-10, 13, 19)
• Bibliography Entry: Jones, Ann. “Management: Art or Science?” Management Magazine, September 1990.
Two-Author Magazine, Newspaper, or Journal Article
• Citation: (Jones and Smith, 1991, p. 15) or (Jones and Smith, 1991, pp. 11, 34-37)
• Bibliography Entry: Jones, Ann and John Smith. “Management: Art or Science?” Management Magazine, September 1991.
Bibliography entries for articles in journals include the volume and number; for example: Jones, Ann and John Smith. “Management: Art or Science?” Harvard Business Review. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Volume 27, Number 3, 1991.
Bibliography entries of articles in magazines or newspapers have the day of publication; for example: Time, September 12, 1987.
One-Author Selection in an Edited Book
• Citation: (Smith in Richardson, 1992, p. 32) or (Smith in Richardson, 1992, pp. 37-40)
• Bibliography Entry: Smith, John. “Managing for Results.” In Management by Joan Richardson, Editor. New York: Harper and Row, 1992.
Two-Author Selection in an Edited Book
• Citation: (Smith and Winters in Richardson, 1992, pp. 12-15)
• Bibliography Entry: Smith, John and James Winters. “Management by Objectives.” In Management by Joan Richardson, Editor. New York: Harper and Row, 1992.
Personal Interview
• Citation: (Winters, September 15, 2001)
• Bibliography Entry: Winters, Kathleen. Personal interview with author, September 15, 2008.
Note that you cite the name of the person interviewed—not your name. (We know who you are as the author of the paper.)
Lecture
• Citation: (McIlnay, October 3, 2008)
• Bibliography Entry: McIlnay, Dennis P. “Frederick Winslow Taylor: The Father of Scientific Management.” MBA 500, Saint Francis University, October 3, 2008.
Internet
• Citation: (www.SevenOaksPress.com)
• Bibliography Entry: www.SevenOaksPress.com
Short and Long Quotations
Short Quotations (30 words or less) are set in quotation marks and are run full measure of the page; that is, from margin to margin all the way across the page. For example:
“Management is an important part of the success of every organization” (Smith, 1987, p. 25).
Long Quotations (31 words or more) are indented on both sides and double spaced without quotation marks. (The indentation signifies a long quotation; thus, quotation marks are not needed). For example:
Management is important in organizations. According to Smith (1987, p. 25):
Management is one of the oldest and most important disciplines in the history
of civilization. All organizations need management to achieve their objectives
and serve society’s interests. The practice of management is inevitably human
because management, by definition, is ‘getting things done through other people.’
Thus, management is a people business.
Note: A quotation within a long, indented quote is set in single quotation marks.
Bibliography
The Bibliography is placed at the end of the paper on a separate sheet of paper with the word, Bibliography, centered at the top of the page. Works are listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name or, if the author is an association or publishing company, the name of the organization. “Works” include books, articles, selections in edited books, lectures, and personal interviews, among many other sources of information. The Bibliography contains only the works cited in the paper.
Content: The Second Canon
Content is the second canon of research writing and concerns how thoroughly the information in a research paper is presented. Content is very important because a research paper without good content—even with good attribution—is a poor paper. Research papers with poor content are sometimes called “encyclopedia” papers; i.e., papers that provide only a “quick and dirty,” surface explanation of their topics.
When judging a paper’s content, I ask the following questions:
• Does the paper thoroughly perform its purpose? For example, if the paper’s purpose is to explain Henri Fayol’s 14 principles of management, does the paper do so thoroughly?
• Do all sections of the paper have good content? (Some papers begin with good content, but end weakly, as the author runs out of energy or time.)
• Is the information in the paper correct? For instance, if a research paper explains Frederick Herzberg’s “motivators” and “hygienics” in his theory of motivation, is the explanation in the paper correct?
Order: The Third Canon
The third canon of research writing is called Order, which pertains to the organization of a paper. At least two levels of order are required: major sections and minor sections.
There must be at least three major sections. The first major section is called Introduction and has two minor sections: Purpose of the Paper and Context of the Topic. The Purpose sub-section states the purpose of the paper (such as to explain, compare, or synthesize information on a topic). Context is background information associated with the subject of a research paper. Establishing the context helps the reader better understand the topic of a paper. For example, in a paper on Scientific Management, the Context could explain a little about the Industrial Revolution, which was the background of Scientific Management. The Context sub-section of such a paper could also explain a little about the life and work of Frederick Winslow Taylor, the Father of Scientific Management.
The second major section of a research paper is commonly called the “Body,” but this section deserves a better name. (The title of the paper works well as the name of the “Body.”) The “Body” of a research paper may have as many sub-sections as needed to present all relevant information in the paper.
The third major section of a research paper is called the Conclusion and has two minor sections: Summary and Opinion. The Summary is a miniature version of the paper, and all the major points in the “Body” of the paper should appear in the Summary. The Opinion section enables an author to state personal views on the subject of the paper, thereby separating the descriptive parts of the paper from the author’s opinion.
Clarity: The Fourth Canon
Clarity, the fourth canon of research writing, concerns the clearness and grammatical correctness of the writing in a paper. Clarity is very important because a paper with good content, but poor clarity, is a failure. The following grammatical mistakes are common in research papers and should not appear in papers for the Saint Francis School of Business.
Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence is two independent clauses (actually two sentences) incorrectly joined by a comma. Example: “Saint Francis is a great university, I am glad to be here.” The two independent clauses (“Saint Francis is a great university” and “I am glad to be here”) must be separated by a semi-colon or broken into two sentences. The easiest way to correct a run-on sentence is to make two sentences out of the independent clauses.
Agreement of Noun and Pronoun
Pronouns must agree with the nouns they replace. A singular noun takes the singular form of the pronoun, while a plural noun gets the plural form of the pronoun. For example: “A manager has their duties” is an agreement mistake. The sentence should read: “A manager has her duties” or “A manager has his duties.” Better yet, avoid the awkward “his” and “her” by changing the sentence to: “Managers have their duties.” Even better, eliminate the pronoun: “Managers have duties.” Strunk and White’s classic advice, “Use nouns, not pronouns,” is as good today as it was when it was written 50 years ago. Other examples of agreement mistakes are:
• “The Company made their first move.”
• “An organization needs to rely on their personnel.”
• “The employee does the work. They perform their duties effectively.”
Punctuation
The first letter of the first word in a sentence is capitalized. A declarative sentence ends in a period. A question ends with a question mark. Commas go after prepositional phrases; for example, “Before reading students’ research papers, I have a couple beers.”
An ellipsis in the middle of a sentence has three periods. An ellipsis at the end of a sentence has four periods. (The first three periods in the ellipsis at the end of a sentence are the ellipsis; the fourth period is, in effect, the period at the end of the sentence.)
By convention, a period or comma goes inside the quotation mark. Set the “Preferences” in the “Grammar Checker” in Word to put all punctuation marks inside the quotation marks.
The period at the end of a sentence containing a citation goes after the citation at the very end of the sentence: “Foundations may be the nation’s least understood organizations” (McIlnay, 1998, p. 2). Notice where the period is.
Transitions
Transitions link ideas, paragraphs, or sections in a paper. One-word transitions include “however,” “therefore,” or “moreover.” A transition sentence at the end of a paragraph summarizes that paragraph and introduces the next paragraph. A transition paragraph at the end of a section summarizes the section and introduces the next section. Research papers should make appropriate use of one-word, one-sentence, and one-paragraph transitions.
Spelling
Research papers that are filled with spelling errors will fail, regardless of the quality of their attribution, content, or order.
Slang
Slang is “street language.” Expressions such as “making a buck,” “here’s the deal,” or
“a lot” are slang and should not be used. Other examples of slang are:
• “What’s up?”
• “hit the streets”
• “big boy on the block”
• “get into the coaching scene”
Jargon
Jargon is professional language and consists of words or phrases usually familiar to only a certain group of professionals; for example, nuclear engineers. Jargon should not be used because most readers will not understand it. Examples of jargon are:
• “input” (computer jargon)
• “feedback” (entertainers’ jargon)
• “The team plays tough D.” (sports jargon)
Vague Words (or Ideas)
The word, “this,” as in the sentence, “This happens in management,” is vague and must be avoided. A noun should accompany the word, “this,” as in “This crime happens in management.” Words such as “thing,” “everyone,” “everything,” “many,” “some,” “something,” “someone,” “people,” “situation,” “few,” or “field” are also vague and should not be used. The word, “it,” should be avoided because “it” is usually vague. Every sentence in a research paper must be clear—in and of itself. Vague words or phrases defeat clarity.
Person
The paper should be written in the third person, although the first person may be used in the Opinion section. Do not use “I,” “me,” “my,” or “mine” as well as “you,” “your,” “we,” “our,” and “us.” These words are confusing to the reader. For example:
• “Now we’re talking about the supervisor.”
• “Our purpose in writing this paper....”
• “You need to study management.”
Wordiness
“The Economy of Words” is a principle of good writing and means that words should be used sparingly. The one best word should be found for the idea you are trying to communicate. Use the thesaurus in your word-processor. An example of wordiness is the phrase, “in order to;” the words, “in order” can almost always be struck. Other examples of wordiness are “pull together a paper” or “work out a problem.” These wordy phrases should be replaced by “assemble a paper” or “solve a problem.” Other examples of wordiness from actual Saint Francis research papers are:
• “due to the fact that” (because)
• “...many other acts which strengthen the bond of Brotherhood, but only through these acts can there develop that bond that results in Brotherhood.”
Sentences That Are Not Sentences
• “Formerly known as Martinsburg Shoe Company and Evy Footwear.”
• “With needs, desires and feelings?”
• “Referent because his employees like him.”
Ending a Sentence in a Preposition
Ending a sentence in a preposition is awkward; for example:
• “...selection to choose from.”
• “...no longer take care of.”
Split Infinitives
• “to heavily recruit” (to recruit heavily)
• “to boldly go” (OK for Star Trek, but not SFU Trek....)
• “to weekly pay” (to pay weekly)
Misplaced “Only”
• “I only graded five papers.” Should be: “I graded only five papers.”
Agreement of Noun and Verb
A singular noun gets the singular form of the verb, and a plural noun gets the plural form of the verb.
• “Every part of the eight steps in strategic management are extremely important.”
• “The overall number of strengths and weaknesses were about the same.”
• “Specific invitations to attend parties is required.”
Typography
Double space the entire paper (including the long quotations). A cover page is required. Page numbers are required. Margins are required. “Lonely headings” should be “returned” to the next page to go with the copy they introduce. Use the proper case for different levels of order. Major sections: caps and centered. Minor sections: caps/lower case, flush left.
Other Clarity Mistakes from Actual Papers at Saint Francis University
“The dairy has a police of on-the-job training.”
“She falls into the position not by choice that is just where she ends up.”
Employee A said, “working here is great.”
Employee Three says that, “I talk to my co-workers.”
“It will be hard to get the organization to comply.”
“The managers that work here....”
“amongst”
“all of the employees”
“towards”
“He plays a bigger roll behind the scenes.”
“their fore becoming inattentive.”
“The manager decides whether or not to hire the candidate.”
“the reason why”
“The organizational chart is create drawn by the employees and owners where similar when ask to draw the chain of command.”
“The store’s strengths are strong.”
“Employees in the Purchasing Department feel co-workers.”
“There are many strengths, but to many treats.”
“I have worked nine years as a worker.”
“The school does not have the right to regulate different situations as they become in need of such.”
“It does things.”
“The attitudes of the members involved with the marketing of the Women’s Basketball Team all have an excellent attitude about their jobs.”
“Thus began the beginning....”
“This informs of what the jobs are and how they completed it.”
“Some inefficiencies would be there scheduling.”
“The vast majority of laws...are the soul responsibility of the supplier.”
“Positions of the personnel describes the positions of the personnel.”
“He also received the Cord on Blue Medal.”
“He says that people jock with the General Manager.”
“He was also the Food Service Director at one unit of Holyday In Hotels.”
“It provides the students with activities not otherwise provided.”
“The Career Development office needs to sit down and discuss what priority of what is the most important to the least.”
“Now that President Busch is in office....”
Example of Parts a Research Paper
The following section illustrates two levels of order in a research paper.
INTRODUCTION
Purpose of the Paper
Henri Fayol’s principle of authority is one of the most important contributions to the management literature. This paper examines Fayol’s authority principle by explaining his two types of authority: “formal” and “personal.” The paper begins by discussing Administrative Management, which is the context of Fayol’s management principles. Next, the paper briefly explains each of Fayol’s 14 management principles. The paper then presents Fayol’s principle of authority in detail, using material from General and Industrial Administration (1949), Fayol’s classic book. The paper concludes with a summary and an opinion on Fayol’s principle of authority.
Note: This purpose statement tells the reader what to expect in the paper:
- The topic of the paper: Fayol’s authority principle;
- The context of the topic: Fayol’s life and contributions to management;
- The body of the paper: Fayol’s authority principle;
- The primary source: Fayol’s book;
- The order in which the topics in the paper will appear.
Context of the Topic
The Context section provides background information on the topic of the paper. For example, in the Context section of a paper on Fayol’s principle of authority, you could explain a little about Fayol’s life, professional history, or management philosophy. You could also explain a little about Administrative Management, Fayol’s main contribution to management theory. After receiving some brief information on Fayol or Administrative Management, the reader would be better prepared to understand Fayol’s principle of authority. The Context sub-section could range in length from a couple paragraphs to a page or two.
FAYOL’S PRINCIPLE OF AUTHORITY
Fayol’s Authority Principle
This section contains the heart of the paper (the “Body”) and explains Fayol’s principle of authority and its two forms: “formal” and “personal” authority. This section’s content should reflect the fact that it is the main part of the paper. You could have as many sub-sections in the “Body” as needed to present the information in the paper thoroughly.
CONCLUSION
Summary
In this sub-section, summarize the key points in the “Body” of the paper, writing, in effect, a miniature version of the “Body” in a couple paragraphs or a page. Don’t repeat the entire “Body,” but only its main points.
Opinion
In the Opinion sub-section, discuss your ideas, observations, or opinions on the topic of the paper. You could combine your opinion of the topic with that of other researchers, thereby developing a fuller discussion of the significance of the topic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, John A. Management. New York: Harper and Row, 1987.
Anderson, John A. and Jane Smith. Management. New York: Harper and Row, 1989.
Association for the Study of Management. The Management Principles of Henri Fayol. New York, 1985.
Fayol, Henri. General and Industrial Administration. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1949.
Jones, Ann. “Management: Art or Science?” Harvard Business Review. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, Volume 12, Number 3, September 1987.
McIlnay, Dennis. “Frederick Winslow Taylor: The Father of Scientific Management.” MBA 500 Lecture, Saint Francis College, October 3, 2008.
Smith, John. “Fayol’s Principle of Authority.” In Management by Joan Richardson, Editor. New York: Harper and Row, 1987.
Time. “Fayol’s Classic Principle of Authority.” September 12, 1987.
Winters, Kathleen. Personal interview with author, October 15, 2008.
www.francis.edu.